The history of urbanization has shown anything but an enlightened approach by
humans toward the surrounding natural ecosystem. The human tendency has been to
extract the wealth of the Earth to meet the needs and aspirations of our
advancing society. Traditionally, little regard was paid to the natural systems
that support our very existence. Woodlands were cleared, wetlands were drained,
plant and animal populations were decimated -- all yielding to the needs of
urban expansion. Even today, in a self-defined 'enlightened' society, the drive
for urban expansion continues to consume vast tracts of natural, or at least
naturalistic, ecosystems.
Fortunately, however, awareness is growing. An
understanding and appreciation for the value of natural systems is beginning to
temper the drive for expansion. The social benefits of natural settings in the
urban environment were first identified in the mid-1800s. Landscape and park
designers, in particular, Frederick Law Olmsted, perceived the value of a
healthy, natural, open environment that allows city dwellers to escape from the
stressed, crowded and polluted urban environment. Since then, increasing
knowledge of the dynamic functions within natural systems has led to a broader
level of concerns. Today, natural ecosystems are recognized as fundamentally
important components in maintaining the health of the environment as a whole.
This recognition has placed a new emphasis on the restoration of natural
ecosystems within our urban environments.
The papers in this chapter all deal
with the topic of ecological restoration in the urban environment. The authors
have identified several issues specifically related to urban restoration
projects. However, one stands out as a fundamental problem with the definition
of restoration. This issue revolves around the public's perception of nature
versus the reality of a functionally sustainable natural system. Originally
driven by self preservation, humanity has always attempted to exercise control
over the environment. In a modern context, the desire for a controlled nature
stems from a concern for safety. Whether the concern involves fire in a restored
prairie, deep water in a wetland setting or thick undergrowth in a restored
woodland, every restoration project in an urban setting will eventually need to
deal with the issue of public safety.
The public's perception of safety is
directly linked to a sense of control over the environment. A sense of control
is best expressed through the aesthetic treatment of a project. In her review of
the prairie gardens and restoration at the corporate headquarters of St. Jude
Medical, Virginia Gaynor describes the need to create a landscape which evokes
an image of care, intent and responsibility as a primary design goal. Landscape
architect Jim Hagstrom, designer for the project, says "the overriding issue of
this project became one of perception." Hagstrom combined native plants with
traditional design techniques to "make nature acceptable" to his client. The
need for social acceptance, framed within culturally driven aesthetic
expectations, is often identified as a crucial goal of urban restoration
projects. The design team for the Phalen Wetland Park, reviewed by Tanya
Olson-Kase, recognized that acceptance of the wetland hinged on creating a sense
of unmistakable human intention by framing the "messy", uncontrolled natural
parts of the park with "neat", controlled borders.
Society's perceptions of
aesthetic value and safety can often lead to conflict with the needs of
ecologically sound restoration, at both a site specific and landscape level. The
conflict generally results in reduced ecosystem quality. The impact of urban
infrastructure reduces the opportunity to re-establish predevelopment natural
systems, for example, site hydrology. In his review of the Greening the Great
River Park Project in St. Paul, Andy Sudbrock acknowledges this problem, "True
restoration of most of the project area to presettlement conditions is both
impossible and impractical as the site formerly consisted of wetlands, wet
prairies and floodplain forest but is now highly urbanized and no longer
receives periodic flooding."
It can be argued, however, that the true value of
urban projects lies not in the restoration of accurate and functioning natural
systems but, rather, in their role as educational facilities. Every project
reviewed in this chapter was deliberately designed with a strong educational
component to their mission. Developing a social, and ultimately, a cultural
appreciation for natural ecosystems is essential to acquiring protection for our
remaining wilderness areas and to inspiring the determination needed to attempt
ecologically sound restoration projects where feasible. As part of the Phalen
Chain of Lakes Watershed Project mentioned earlier, a sod farm within a highly
urbanized area is specifically being restored as a wetland educational facility.
Amy Bower, reviewing the project, has identified the opportunities defined by
the project's design team. The project will educate the community about wetlands
and restoration efforts, provide recreational opportunities and begin to create
regional connections and wildlife corridors. The designers intend to demonstrate
the project's value in storm water cleaning and increasing the local
bio-diversity. Every opportunity identified involves educating the public about
the intrinsic value of wetlands or their value as amenities to the community.
Education in the urban environment, where the greatest number of people can be
reached, is likely to be the key to gaining the necessary public support for
far-reaching and extensive restoration projects in the future.
In conclusion,
it is obvious that many concerns exist relating to ecological restoration
projects within the urban environment. Ecosystem quality is likely to be
compromised by several factors: -- The potential exists to limit maximum water
levels in the Sod Farm wetland restoration project due to the possibility of
flooding in neighboring basements (Bower, A. this volume). Limitations like
this indicate the impact the urban infrastructure can have on the level of
ecosystem quality that can be achieved as well as the sustainability of a
natural system. -- The public perception of what a "natural ecosystem" is will
likely limit the range of ecosystem types attempted as restoration projects. The
design and ecosystem model for the Phalen Watershed Park were deliberately
molded to create a positive perception of the park by its neighbors (Olson-Kase,
T. this volume). -- Landowner concerns over what the project would look like
prompted the design team of the Big Sandy Lake project to acknowledge the
"people factor" early in the design process (McFadden, K. this volume). Worried
about long-term success without property owner support, the designers
recognized that the public concern over aesthetic qualities could possibly
impose further restrictions on the types and quality of ecosystems that can be
sustained.
However, the success of urban restoration projects should not be
judged solely on the basis of the ecological quality achieved. Within a highly
degraded urban environment, it is arguable that any improvement in ecological
quality can be considered a success. A much more meaningful and far-reaching
measure would be the extent to which these projects succeed in educating the
public as to the value of natural ecosystems. Public appreciation for and
acceptance of nature in all its forms are fundamental prerequisites for the
success of all future restoration work.